Advancements in Anode Materials for Cathodic Protection: Nanostructured Alloys, Surface Modifications, and Smart Monitoring

Madaniyyu Sulaiman Yahaya 1,2, Kapil Nahar 1, Dinesh Kumar 1, Habib Muhammad Usman 3, 

Abdulhaq Saleh Gambo 1, Tijjani Aminu Umar 2, Mustapha Sulaiman 4

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mewar University, Chittorgarh, India

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil, Nigeria

3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Mewar University, Chittorgarh, India

4 Department of Chemistry, Mewar University, Chittorgarh, India

1. INTRODUCTION

The world economy loses $2.5 trillion a year, or 3.4% of GDP [1], to corrosion; in 2014, China alone suffered USD 310 billion in losses [2]. Corrosion costs the Middle East's economy about 5% of GDP, which has a major effect on the oil and gas industry by raising operational expenses [3]. In addition, it presents serious difficulties for sectors such as infrastructure, maritime, and oil and gas because of the hostile environment, which accelerates degradation due to high salt, high temperatures, and chemical exposure. Due to such great financial and technical worth, protecting metals against corrosion remains an ongoing debate for several engineering industries [4]. In conjunction with anti-corrosion protective coatings, cathodic protection (CP) is the main technique to safeguard precious metals against deterioration in industrial and maritime structures [5]. It has also been successfully utilized to protect against seawater deterioration of naval vessels and ballast tanks [6]. Cathodic protection works by converting the metal structure into the cathode of an electrochemical cell to prevent rust. Two primary methods are used: Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection (SACP) and Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) [7][8]. In SACP, a more reactive metal anode, typically magnesium, zinc, or aluminum, is attached to the protected metal, and current flows from the electro-negative anode to the electro-positive cathode, preventing corrosion of the metal [9]. This process limits the voltage differential to about 1 volt, depending on the anode and environment, with oxidation occurring at the anode and reduction at the cathode [10]. However, SACP's major drawback is the unpredictability of the anode’s lifespan, which depends on the material's flow rate, leading to potential system failure [11]. SACP systems also have restricted current output, are ineffective in high-resistance environments, and require costly replacements, with monitoring typically relying on visual inspections that may not detect issues immediately [12]-[14]. ICCP uses inert anodes, such as mixed metal oxides, platinum, or graphite, and supplies continuous current through an external DC power source [15][16]. Although effective, ICCP systems are expensive to install, maintain, and monitor, and their complex installation can compromise aesthetics and worker safety [11],[17][18]. Additionally, ICCP requires a well-regulated electrical system, with incorrect installation potentially leading to failure [19]. The system adds structural dead load and demands frequent maintenance, which may introduce environmental challenges like corrosion and vandalism [20][21]. Recently, hybrid systems that combine elements of both SACP and ICCP methods have emerged, offering a balance of cost, enhanced efficiency, and durability in extreme environments, though further optimization is needed to improve their efficiency [18].

Structures known as anodes for CP systems are made from an element that is exposed to anodic polarization and supplementary components that support the anode's structural design. Anodes supply the current required to safeguard any metal construction, inert or sacrificial. Anodes need to be able to support large loads while still having low polarizability and solubility, according to Xu et al. both soluble and insoluble anode materials (platinum and its alloys) are possible. Anodes in CP systems must meet several critical criteria: they should have a long lifespan, low consumption rate, and high electrochemical efficiency, all while being cost-effective and easy to install [6]. Innovations in anode materials, smart monitoring systems, hybrid protection strategies, and sustainability are some of the most recent developments in CP. The development of more resilient and effective anode materials and coatings that offer cost-effectiveness, longer-lasting protection, and require less maintenance is still being researched [22][23]. Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) anodes, featuring conductive oxides like  and  on a titanium substrate, offer enhanced electrochemical activity and durability, particularly in challenging environments such as seawater [24][25]. Advanced aluminum-based alloys, such as , provide effective corrosion protection with long-term stability [26][27]. Innovations in coatings, including platinum, ceramic, and metallic coatings, have improved substrate protection and corrosion resistance, although cost and environmental concerns persist [28][29]. Nanostructured materials and polymer nanocomposites further enhance performance by increasing surface area and preventing oxide build up [30][31]. Conductive polymers and ceramics show promise in improving corrosion resistance while addressing environmental and economic factors. Hybrid solutions offer multi-layered safeguards by combining CP with other corrosion prevention techniques such as coatings and inhibitors [32]–[35]. Additionally, initiatives are underway to create energy-efficient and environmentally friendly CP systems [36][37], attributes and the ability to withstand the pressures of transit, setup, and execution; affordability, simplicity, and low-cost setup [6]. In light of increasing environmental regulations, the need for sustainable and efficient CP systems has never been greater. Smart monitoring technologies, integrated with advanced materials, are revolutionizing how industries maintain corrosion protection, reducing waste and improving system longevity [38][39].

Certain industries, especially hostile industrial and maritime environments, have constraints when it comes to cathodic protection (CP) technologies like impressed current systems and sacrificial anode because of problems including the unpredictability of anode lifespan, high installation, and maintenance costs, inefficiency in high-resistance environments and material degradation [40][41]. Even though these systems are tried and tested, better anode materials are desperately needed to increase sustainability, efficiency, and long-term performance. To close this gap, this review provides a thorough overview of recent developments in anode materials, such as novel alloys, composites, conductive polymers, ceramics, and nanostructured materials, in addition to newly developed hybrid CP systems that integrate CP with coatings and smart monitoring technologies that offer more sustainable, efficient, and long-lasting solutions. Through a focus on applications in the oil and gas, maritime, and infrastructure industries, the paper assesses how these advances can overcome shortcomings in the present CP approaches. This review, which incorporates significant literature, distinguishes itself by offering a comparative evaluation of conventional and sophisticated systems, underscoring the disregard for long-term performance in earlier studies. The review also highlights the novelties of new material advancements and hybrid systems, which provide answers to current problems and aid in the creation of more efficient and long-lasting CP technologies for a range of sectors.

2. FUNDAMENTALS OF CATHODIC PROTECTION

1. Principle of Cathodic Protection System

Ameh and Ikpeseni explain that cathodic protection works by turning the outermost layer of metal cathodic by delivering direct current and connecting a separate anode to the metal that has to be safeguarded. This reverses the flow of electrons and balances electrochemical reactions to prevent corrosion. The metal (iron in particular) ionizes in anodic places throughout the corrosion process, releasing electrons that are subsequently consumed at cathodic areas, as shown by equation (1) [42]. To show how anodic and cathodic reactions are balanced, equation (4) depicts the production of iron hydroxide. However, the application of these electrochemical principles in real-world environments involves additional complexities that affect the CP system's efficiency, depending on factors such as electrolyte conductivity, resistivity, and environmental conditions. High chloride environments, for instance, promote anodic dissolution and reduce the effectiveness of passive layers, requiring more robust CP designs to mitigate corrosion [43]. The primary electrochemical mechanisms at work are as follows:

Anodic Reaction (Iron Corrosion):

Cathodic Reactions:

in acidic solution:

in aerated non-acidic solution:

The entire corrosion process is the result of several reactions, which can be summed up as follows:

Cathodic protection systems consist of several key components that interact to safeguard metal structures as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. These include cables, rectifiers, reference electrodes, and anodes. The rectifiers in impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) systems convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) to ensure a continuous DC supply, which is crucial for controlling the protection current. Older rectifiers, such as single-phase oil or air-cooled transformers, have limitations in terms of size, weight, and low efficiency at minimal voltages. However, modern systems, such as module-type switching rectifiers (MSR), utilize zero-voltage switching (ZVS) to enhance efficiency and reduce bulk, even though efficiency issues may persist at low output voltages [44][45]. Reference electrodes monitor the potential difference between the protected structure and the surrounding environment (e.g., soil or water) to ensure proper polarization. These components collectively create an electrical circuit that directs positive current from the impressed current electrode to the structure, polarizing it cathodically and preventing corrosion. Modern advancements in CP rectifiers focus on maintaining ZVS to minimize switching losses, improving the overall efficiency and durability of ICCP systems, especially in large-scale infrastructure applications [46].

Figure 1. Illustration of key components and electrochemical reactions in an ICCP cathodic protection system

Figure 2. Illustration of key components and electrochemical reactions in a SACP cathodic protection system

2. Environmental Factors Affecting Cathodic Protection Systems

Environmental factors such as humidity, pH, salinity, temperature, and exposure to chemicals directly influence the effectiveness of CP systems. High humidity environments can increase electrolyte conductivity, accelerating corrosion and necessitating higher current output in impressed current systems. Elevated moisture levels can also lead to rapid consumption of sacrificial anodes, reducing their longevity and protection efficiency. In highly acidic or alkaline conditions, corrosion is accelerated due to changes in the passivation layer. For instance, acidic conditions lead to an increase in hydrogen ion reduction, raising current demand. On the other hand, high alkalinity may promote the formation of protective layers near coating defects, though extensive cathodic disbandment can compromise this benefit [47]. Salinity, particularly in chloride-rich environments such as seawater, accelerates the dissolution of protective passive layers on metal surfaces, leading to increased anodic dissolution and faster degradation of sacrificial anodes. Adjusting the size and distribution of sacrificial anodes in such environments can help to evenly distribute protective currents and reduce localized corrosion [48]. Temperature also plays a critical role; higher temperatures increase the rate of electrochemical reactions, accelerating corrosion and reducing the lifespan of sacrificial anodes. In contrast, lower temperatures slow down these processes, potentially reducing current demand in impressed current systems, though electrolyte conductivity may decrease as well [49]. The introduction of industrial pollutants or aggressive chemicals can further exacerbate the degradation of passive layers, requiring more sophisticated CP designs to account for these variables [50].

3. Environmental Impact of Cathodic Protection Systems

Although CP systems effectively mitigate corrosion, they also pose environmental risks. Degradation of sacrificial anodes can lead to the release of heavy metals such as chromium, copper, lead, and zinc into the environment. In marine environments, these metals can accumulate in sediment and seawater, adversely affecting aquatic ecosystems and potentially causing long-term environmental harm [51]. In terrestrial environments, degraded anodes can leach into groundwater through porous soils, contaminating water bodies and ecosystems that depend on them [52]. In wastewater treatment plants, CP systems using mixed metal oxide anodes have been observed to precipitate heavy metals like iron and arsenic, though this process can also be harnessed to reduce harmful metal concentrations in wastewater [53][54]. Mitigation strategies include the use of environmentally friendly coatings like polyaniline (PANI) and phytic acid-based solutions, as well as the deployment of inert anodes, such as , which offer longer lifespans and minimize environmental pollution [55][56]. Electrochemical regeneration and recycling of materials like carbon nanotubes () have also been explored as ways to reduce the environmental footprint of CP systems while extending the service life of sacrificial anodes [57].

4. Types of Cathodic Protection Systems

Cathodic protection systems can be divided into three main types: Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection (SACP), Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP), and Hybrid Cathodic Protection Systems. In SACP, a more electro-negative metal, such as magnesium, aluminum, or zinc, is used as the sacrificial anode, which corrodes instead of the protected metal. The efficiency of sacrificial anodes depends on factors like water chemistry, salinity, and the presence of inhibitors, which can either accelerate or decelerate anode consumption [58]. For instance, phosphate and carbonate ions can slow down the dissolution of sacrificial anodes, prolonging their protective effectiveness [59]. ICCP systems, on the other hand, utilize an external DC power supply to drive positive current through the electrolyte, polarizing the metal structure and preventing corrosion. ICCP systems are capable of delivering larger current outputs and are more suited for long-term protection of large structures, such as ships or underground pipelines, though they are more expensive to install and maintain compared to SACP systems [10]. Recent advancements in ICCP include the integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar power, to reduce operating costs and environmental impact while maintaining high-efficiency corrosion protection [60]. Hybrid systems combine the strengths of both SACP and ICCP by using an impressed current to arrest corrosion and then switching to sacrificial anode operation for long-term maintenance. These systems are particularly beneficial in environments with variable conditions, such as coastal areas, where salinity, temperature, and humidity fluctuate regularly [61]. Hybrid systems can operate for up to 30 years with minimal maintenance, though anode replacement may be necessary over time [62].

5. Smart Monitoring Systems in Cathodic Protection

Since the Internet of Things (IoT), wireless communication, and real-time data analytics have been integrated into cathodic protection (CP) systems, smart monitoring systems have undergone significant evolution, enhancing corrosion prevention efficiency and dependability. By enabling continuous, real-time monitoring, these systems lessen the need for human inspections, provide prompt corrective action, and help discover corrosion problems early. Smart CP systems can automatically modify protection levels in response to operational and environmental changes by continuously monitoring data. This helps them to maximize corrosion prevention. In this situation, technologies like LoRaWAN and LPWAN are crucial because they provide long-range, low-power connectivity for remote monitoring of large infrastructure, such as pipelines, where physical inspections are frequently unsafe or impracticable. [63]-[65]. The ability to remotely monitor and control CP systems using wireless communication technologies has transformed corrosion management, enhancing both accessibility and safety [66]-[68].

Moreover, data management and operational efficiency have increased with the integration of CP systems with IoT and cloud platforms. These platforms make it easier to gather, store, and process massive datasets in real-time. This improves data security and allows operators to monitor and modify CP systems from a distance. Smart corrosion protection (CP) systems use sophisticated sensors and real-time data analytics to automatically assess corrosion conditions and make necessary adjustments to maintain optimal protection, particularly in dangerous or inaccessible settings where manual intervention is impractical [64]-[65]. Additionally, sensors such as PZT transducers offer accurate measures of anode health and corrosion rates, which enhances maintenance choices and lowers the risk of unplanned failures in critical infrastructure [68],[69]. The scalability and cost-effectiveness of these systems, particularly when integrated with existing infrastructure, allow for widespread application in large-scale networks such as pipelines, significantly reducing operational costs and improving system longevity [63][64],[70].

When cathodic protection (CP) systems are integrated with SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data capture) systems, real-time automation and data capture improve monitoring and control. T facilitate remote monitoring and automated modifications in response to changes in environmental parameters, such as soil moisture and resistivity, SCADA systems use remote terminal units (RTUs) to send field data to a central unit [71]. Research, like that of Harbi et al. [72], has shown that SCADA-controlled systems are effective, especially when combined with PID (proportional integral derivative) controllers. By continuously optimizing anode voltage, SCADA was able to reduce power consumption in carbon steel pipes by 59.1% when exposed to high soil moisture levels. Advanced features like Kalman filters to stabilize Pipe-to-Soil Potential (PSP) readings further enhance system precision, reducing manual intervention and improving corrosion protection efficiency [72][73].

3. CONVENTIONAL ANODE MATERIALS

Owing to their established dependability and affordability, conventional materials are extensively utilized in diverse cathodic protection (CP) contexts. They have long been the industry standard for safeguarding metal structures in various settings and are well-understood in terms of performance. They all have advantages and disadvantages, though, based on the demands of the application and the surrounding circumstances.

3.1.  Comparative Analysis of Common Conventional Anode Materials

1. Magnesium

Because of its strong negative potential, magnesium is an excellent shield for onshore constructions, especially in areas where the resistivity of the electrolyte (soil, water) is higher. Because of its higher resistivity, which is correlated with a reduced rate of corrosion, magnesium is an excellent material for uses such as fuel tanks, pipelines, and ship hulls [40]. When it comes to long-term protection in settings contaminated with chloride, magnesium anodes are more efficient than zinc and aluminum because of their superior electrochemical activity and stability [74]. Magnesium has several benefits, but its greater potential may end up in excessive safeguarding and problems such as hydrogen gas generation, which can cause coating flaws and disbandment from tanks [75]. Magnesium anodes also have a limited lifespan due to their quick exhaustion caused by their high current flow. The inability of traditional cathodic protection systems based on sacrificial anodes (SAs) to regulate potential and current led to the creation of SA systems with programmable parameters to address these issues [76].

2. Zinc

Zinc anodes are utilized in seawater and applications where the resistivity of the soil is below 20 mΩ [39]-[77]. oxidizes preferentially rather than the shielded metal, providing consistent corrosion protection when utilized in marine environments. In addition to the established efficiency of these devices, recent studies have demonstrated that zinc anodes in SACP systems are stable and function consistently even under situations of variable salinity [78]. Because the anode can generate a steady current output without undergoing significant polarization, it is particularly well-suited for long-term application in seawater and coastal buildings [79]. Moreover, advances in zinc anode alloying have increased their resistance to passivation, ensuring their continuous operation in a range of marine conditions [80].

3. Aluminum

Due to its outstanding electrochemical capabilities, aluminum anodes are frequently employed in Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection (SACP) systems, which efficiently safeguard steel structures in marine settings. Long-term uses, like ship hulls and offshore structures, benefit greatly from aluminum’s low density and excellent current efficiency. An affordable option for large-scale marine corrosion protection systems, current research shows that alloying aluminum with trace elements like zinc and indium improves its corrosion resistance and lengthens the anode's life [81][82]. Even though aluminum anodes are inexpensive, they could eventually lose their ability to operate [9].

4. Lead-Silver Alloys

The excellent performance of lead-silver alloys in saltwater has led to their usage as impressed current anodes on ship hulls [83][84]. Because exposed platinum can encourage the creation and growth of a conductive  coating on the anode surface, lead-silver alloy's electrochemical characteristics can be enhanced with a modest amount of platinum wire introduced on site. Due to the great density of lead alloy anodes' fragility, subsequent heavy anode weight, and subsequent heavy anode weight, as well as lead pollution during production and maintenance, these anodes are rarely used today to safeguard ship hulls [85][86].

5. Graphite

Thanks to its low cost, high conductivity, and chemical durability in a variety of conditions-especially freshwater and soil—graphite anodes have found widespread application in cathodic protection systems. High-purity graphite used to make these anodes provides sufficient mechanical strength and lengthy service life under the right conditions. The corrosion-resistant properties of graphite stem from its inert nature, which guarantees steady performance throughout time. Notwithstanding its benefits, graphite anodes are susceptible to progressive oxidation, particularly in highly aggressive settings, which could curtail their extended efficacy in contrast to more contemporary anode materials [87]. To avoid physical damage, graphite anodes also need to be installed and handled carefully because of their brittle nature, which can cause cracking and decreased functionality [88].

6. High-Silicon Cast Iron (HSCI) Anodes

Since they are extremely durable and have good resistance to acidic environments, high-silicon cast iron (HSCI) anodes are often used in cathodic protection systems, especially for buried pipelines, ground beds, and other submerged structures. Usually consisting of 14–16% silicon, these anodes provide an economical option with an extended lifespan, which makes them perfect for severe environments where other materials can break down more quickly. Their high silicon concentration makes them far more corrosion-resistant, which guarantees steady and dependable functioning over time. Numerous studies assessing HSCI anodes' effectiveness in real-world applications have shown that they are successful across freshwater and soil conditions [89]. Furthermore, the casting technique makes it possible to produce anodes in a range of sizes and forms that may be customized to meet unique installation needs, increasing their adaptability in cathodic protection systems [90].

As shown in Table 1, conventional anode materials each offer unique advantages and limitations depending on their application environments. For instance, magnesium excels in onshore structures with high-resistivity soils, while zinc and aluminum perform well in marine environments. These distinctions highlight the importance of selecting an appropriate anode material based on specific operating conditions and longevity requirements.

Table1. Comparison of Common Conventional Anode Materials in Cathodic Protection Systems

3.2.  Environmental Impact and Long-Term Ecological Considerations

The disposal of traditional anode materials poses significant environmental challenges due to the release of heavy metals into soil and water, with varying impacts depending on the material. Magnesium anodes, while relatively benign, can disrupt freshwater and soil ecosystems as they corrode. Zinc anodes present greater risks, particularly in marine environments, where zinc ions can bioaccumulate and be toxic to aquatic life [91][92]. Aluminum anodes contribute to environmental contamination through the release of aluminum ions, which can cause soil and water acidification and persist in ecosystems long after use [93][94]. Lead-silver alloys are especially hazardous, as lead is highly toxic, causing neurological and developmental harm to both terrestrial and aquatic organisms, and their use is increasingly restricted due to environmental regulations [95][96]. Graphite anodes, though less toxic, can contribute to localized pollution through residue left behind as they degrade, while high-silicon cast iron (HSCI) anodes, though durable, release iron and silicon ions over time, which can promote eutrophication in aquatic systems and disrupt the mineral balance in soil and water ecosystems [97]. These environmental concerns underscore the need for sustainable alternatives and improved recycling processes to minimize the ecological footprint of traditional anode materials.

4. RECENT ADVANCES IN ANODE MATERIALS

Modern developments in materials science are incorporated into advanced anode materials, which offer improved performance, durability, and efficiency. These materials are frequently employed in settings where long-term dependability is essential or when criteria are stricter.

1. Novel Alloys and Composite Materials

Combining metals and oxides to increase anode performance and endurance is the goal of novel alloys and composite materials.

1. Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) Anodes

Designed for different settings, MMO anodes are a mixture consisting of a  substrate and conductive metal oxides, such as , , or , acting as electrocatalysts. A combination of a solid solution of inert oxides (such as  and ) and valuable metal oxides (such as , and ) can serve as oxide electrocatalysts [98–102]. Although RuO2-TiO2 anodes are useful within the chloralkali industry, their service life is shortened in seawater because of Ru dissolution brought on by electrochemical oxidation [92],[103]. --coated MMO anodes have superior stability and electrochemical characteristics for usage in saltwater [104]–[106]. These anodes are usually made by applying metallic salt solutions to a Ti substrate that has been prepared, drying it, and heating it to produce the coating [92],[106],[107]. This procedure is called the sol-gel technique or thermal decomposition. The microstructure and performance are largely influenced by oxide loading, sintering temperature, and surface preparation [108]–[112].

MMO anodes have a greater amount of specific surface area from porous or fractured morphologies than platinized anodes, which results in a lower anodic potential at the same current density. This produces greater electrochemical activity. Additionally, because of their easier production processes and lower precious metal content, they are more affordable, have longer service lives, and consume less energy. For ICCP, MMO anodes are widely used in freshwater, saltwater, soil, and concrete because of these benefits [113].

Table 2 provides a detailed overview of MMO anodes, highlighting their composition, primary applications, and manufacturing processes. These anodes, primarily made of titanium substrates coated with conductive metal oxides like  and , are widely used in both industrial and marine environments. Their manufacturing involves methods like thermal decomposition and the sol-gel process, with performance influenced by factors such as surface pretreatment and sintering temperature. Compared to platinized anodes, MMO anodes offer improved electrochemical activity, durability, and cost-efficiency.

Table 2. Composition, Applications, and Manufacturing of MMO Anodes

2. Advanced Aluminum-Based Alloy Anodes

Because pure aluminum forms passive films, it is not a good choice for a sacrificial anode. However, alloying substances can work to activate the film. Low-voltage anodes with potentials ranging from -0.73 to -0.85 VSCE have been investigated for a variety of aluminum alloys, including , , , and  [114]. When Ga is increased over 0.1 weight percent, current capacity is decreased, nonuniform dissolving occurs, and severe local corrosion results [115][116]. However,  alloys offer tunable working potentials in seawater from -0.74 to -1.20 VSCE. Addressing these problems, the recently created  alloy provides enhanced dissolving performance, a current capacity of about 2400 A·h·kg⁻¹, and a working potential of between -0.78 and -0.82 VSCE [117].   alloy anodes are frequently employed in maritime conditions because of their superior electrochemical reliability and effectiveness; cadmium improves activation and uniform dissolution, while aluminum increases corrosion resistance.  is still dependable even with environmental worries about the toxicity of cadmium [118]–[120].  alloy anodes provide outstanding current productivity, a long lifespan, immunity to localized corrosion, and good cathodic protection, especially in maritime conditions, thanks to indium's ability to inhibit the formation of passive oxide layers and provide constant performance [121]-[122]. The  alloy, which has a working potential of -1.05 to -1.10 VSCE, is ideal for long-term marine protection because it performs better and has less of an impact on the environment than traditional zinc and  alloys. Gallium and indium improve activation, magnesium ensures consistent dissolution, and manganese improves corrosion resistance [123]–[126].

2. Coatings and Surface Modifications for Enhanced Performance

To safeguard the substrate by drawing corrosive substances, the coating purposefully corrodes a sacrificial metal layer. Because the metals in the coating corrode preferentially, sheltering the underlying material, this approach is especially helpful when the integrity of the coating is damaged, for example, by scratches [127], as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Coatings and Surface Modifications for Enhanced CP Performance

1. Platinum Coatings on Titanium/Niobium

Platinized anodes are composites that are made of , , or  substrates covered with a coating of platinum [128]. They can be produced using a variety of processing methods, including laser cladding, explosive welding, and electroplating. The metallurgically connected Pt coating platinized anodes exhibit exceptional reliability and operational performance. The benefits of platinum-coated anodes include high working current density, minimal consumption, a small weight, and extended service life. In actual use, platinized anodes' performance in seawater has received complete approval [129]. Nevertheless, the extensive applications of platinized anodes are limited in part by their expensive cost.

Advanced Ceramic Coatings

Recent developments in novel materials such as oxides, carbides, nitrides, and borides have led to a major improvement in the corrosion protection properties of ceramic coatings. For instance, zirconium oxide (zirconia) coatings have shown to be very successful in corrosive, high-temperature environments-like those found in chemical processing plants-by creating a strong barrier against aggressive alkalis and sulfuric acids, among other corrosive chemicals [130]. Because of their extraordinary hardness and resistance to wear, tungsten carbide coatings have also performed exceptionally well in corrosive and abrasive environments, especially in the mining sectors [131]. Furthermore, these dense and homogeneous ceramic coatings have been deposited using methods like plasma spraying and high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) spraying, which improves their performance and adhesion in harsh environments and expands their applications in the chemical processing, aerospace, and energy industries [132].

Metallic Coatings

Current developments in metallic coatings draw attention to important developments in surface engineering, alloy design, and environmental sustainability. By mixing materials in unique ways to withstand severe conditions, alloy design innovations aim to create coatings that are resistant to corrosion and have increased qualities [133][134]. Sustainable alternatives including , , , , and zinc-aluminum and copper-nickel alloys that lessen environmental impact while offering sufficient safeguards have gained popularity as environmentally friendly coatings [99],[103],[108],[135][136]. Metallic coatings' adherence and corrosion resistance are improved by surface engineering techniques such as surface roughening and functionalization, which increases their application in a variety of industries [137]–[139]. These advancements show a greater dedication in the field of metallic coatings to environmental stewardship as well as performance.

3. Nanostructured Materials

1. Nanostructured Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO)

Recently, there has been increased interest in MMO anodes with nanostructured deposits. The primary objective of nanostructured MMO anodes, for their use in the electrochemical oxidation/degradation of organic molecules, is to enhance the surface area, hence elevating the reaction rates [140]. To create vertically aligned  nanotubes () with pore sizes ranging from 100 to 220 nm,  substrates are frequently anodized. These  then act as templates for metal oxide deposition, which increases loading capacity. Even though PbO2 was successfully added to  by photo electrodeposition and pulse electrodeposition [141][143], pore blockage was seen in SEM images, which reduced the amount of active surface area. By adding an electrochemical reduction step, Li et al. [144] addressed this issue and successfully removed  and phenol while accomplishing  nanoparticle deposition without obstructing the nanotubes. Moreover,  has been applied in a variety of ways to  [145][146], enhancing their electrochemical characteristics [147]. Mesoporous metal oxide layers have been formed via surfactant-assisted self-assembly [148][149]. Zhao et al. [150] reported a  structure that demonstrated outstanding photocatalytic and electrocatalytic efficiency. Because of their high conductivity and surface area, carbon aerogel () substrates have been investigated for MMO anodes [151][152]. When compared to , an electrode made of  exhibited improved PFOA oxidation capability [153]. Although supported metal oxide systems form the basis of the majority of MMO anodes, recent developments have concentrated on altering bulk MMOs. As an example, Frolova et al. [154] created a high surface area nanostructured  anode, and Lee et al. [155] used photovoltaic deposition to deposit crystalline  nanowires on Si wafers, improving electrochemical characteristics.

2. Polymer Nanocomposites Anodes

It is possible to maintain a good spatial dispersion of the nanoparticles created inside the polymer matrix, so successfully preventing their buildup. Extensive research has been done on the development of silica, titania, or alumina nanoparticles in polymers by in situ sol-gel to generate nanocomposite coatings. Organometallic precursors such as  () [156][158],  () [159], etc. are frequently utilized to generate these metal oxide nanoparticles within the polymer matrix. The primary techniques for preparing polymer nanocomposites in the field of corrosion protection include in-situ particle production in the premade polymer matrix, blending methodology, and in-situ polymerization in the presence of nanoparticles [160].

SiO2 well-dispersed nanoparticles can efficiently cover micro-dislocations in polymers, functioning as a physical barrier and minimizing the disaggregation of resin coating during the curing process [161][162]. Because of their high adhesion, affordability, and superior resistance to chemicals, corrosion, and abrasion,  nanocomposites are employed extensively [163]-[165]. Notwithstanding these advantages, 's hydrophilic properties and high surface energy cause it to be incompatible with the polymer matrix, which causes agglomeration and flaws that reduce corrosion resistance [166]–[168]. Additional nanoparticles that improve the anticorrosion capabilities of polymer coatings include  [169]-[171],  [161],[172]-[173],  [174]-[175],  [176]-[178],  [175],[179], and carbon-based materials such carbon black () [180]-[183], carbon nanotubes () [184]-[186], and graphene [187]-[190]. Similar advantages have been demonstrated by other advanced nanostructures, such as Nano-glass flakes () [191], Nano-graphitic carbon nitride () [192], Nano-hexagonal boron nitride () [193], and others [194]-[208].

3. Hybrid Polymer Nanocomposite Coatings

The integration of many functional components into a single structural unit, known as nanohybrid structures, has piqued the curiosity of many researchers. High-performance protective polymer coatings can be developed by a new reinforcing technique that makes use of hybrid nanomaterials with multi-anticorrosion properties. It is anticipated that coatings with nanohybrids—which combine various inorganic nanoparticles with polymers—will have better anti-corrosion properties. Examples include the  nanohybrid [209], the  nanosheet hybrid reported by Yu et al. [210], the epoxy nanocomposite coating including co-modified  hybrids developed by Zhan et al. [111], and the nanohybrid  (30:70) described by Sari et al. [112].

Figure 4 illustrates the advancements in nanostructured materials for cathodic protection, including Nanostructured Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) anodes, Polymer Nanocomposites, and Hybrid Polymer Nanocomposite Coatings. These cutting-edge materials enhance electrochemical performance, corrosion resistance, and environmental sustainability, making them promising candidates for next-generation cathodic protection systems.

Figure 4. Nanostructured Cathodic Protection Anode Materials

4. Conductive Polymers and Ceramics

1. Conducting Polymers (CPs)

Commercial versions of a variety of CPs exist. They are made by chemical or electrochemical oxidation processes. Among them are  (),  (),  (), and a few others, like  and  as shown in Figure 5, which are promising CPs that have demonstrated outstanding stability, high conductivity, and nontoxic properties [213]–[217].

Owing to their simple synthesis, stability in the environment, and variety of redox states, polyaniline () and its derivatives are useful in protecting against corrosion. To actively inhibit corrosion on metal substrates, emeraldine salt () is essential. -containing epoxy coatings exhibit better alkali resistance and increased defense against corrosion caused by chloride in concrete as compared to conventional coatings [218]. In alkaline and marine settings, doped  films and composites with different colours have shown enhanced resistance [219]–[221]. Sulfonate group additions improve 's usage despite problems with solubility [222][223]. Hydrophobicity and passivation effects are enhanced when superhydrophobic structures from Xanthosoma Sagittifolium are nanocast into , further improving corrosion protection [224].

Metal and alloy corrosion resistance is enhanced by  (). Corrosion resistance is increased when 1%  is added to epoxy polyamide coatings; larger concentrations have no further advantages. Conducting polymers () such as  have processes akin to hexavalent chromium protection, however their effectiveness varies depending on application techniques and environmental factors [225]. Doping  with different anions can change their characteristics and allow for the creation of intelligent coatings that can release dopants when needed. Better protection is demonstrated by bi-layered  coatings with various dopants [226]. Performance is improved by electrochemical synthesis and more layers [227], while copper and magnesium alloys coated with  show exceptional resistance [228][229]. Corrosion resistance and adhesion are further increased when  is combined with substances like saccharin or in nanocomposites [230]-[232].

Metal substrates may be protected from corrosion by using  (). Depending on the environment they are exposed to, several  derivatives have demonstrated promising performance. Improved corrosion protection has been shown when PTh is combined with other conducting polymers, such as polypyrrole (). According to research on water absorption and AC impedance, Kousik et al. showed that 's redox activity provides a benefit for the passivation of -coated mild steel [233]. According to Ocampo et al., epoxy-based paints' corrosion resistance can be increased by 0.2% poly(3-decylthiophene-2,5-diyl) addition [234]. Surface treatment with 2(3-thienyl)  acids, according to Rammelt et al., produces extremely adherent, ultrathin  coatings on mild steel, providing efficient corrosion protection by dividing electrochemical processes [235].

However, there is still difficulty in applying CPs for corrosion protection. According to some studies, a CP coating's high cation mobility, which results from its flaws, maybe the cause of the coating's increased corrosive breakdown when it fails to passivate the surface in the presence of greater faults [236]. The performance of conducting polymer coatings in terms of protection is also significantly impacted by the interfacial chemistry. For example, Grgur et al. [237] discovered that the protective effect of  on metal surfaces is dependent on the oxidation state and properties that comprise the passive layer. The effectiveness of CPs' defense is also influenced by their molecular makeup. An efficient way to encourage the production of passivated metal surfaces and improve anti-corrosion performance is to modify CPs by doping them according to the corrosive environment [236],[238]. Stated differently, depending on their structure and the corrosion-prone environment they are in, CPs can either provide outstanding protection or result in disastrous corrosion erosion [239].

2. Conductive Ceramics

A possible improvement over conventional metal-based anodes, conductive ceramic anodes show great promise for cathodic protection (CP) systems. Ceramic materials possessing elevated electrical conductivity are utilized in these anodes, including but not limited to ruthenium oxide (), titanium dioxide () doped with conductive elements, and metal oxides. CP systems can have a much longer lifespan thanks to conductive ceramics' higher resistance to corrosion and chemical deterioration. Since conductive ceramics are resistant to wear and frequent replacement, they may withstand extreme environmental conditions such high salinity, hostile soils, and temperature fluctuations for lengthy periods without losing their structural integrity or function [240].

Conductive ceramic anodes are durable and show a consistent, even current distribution, which increases the efficiency of the CP system. This consistency lowers the possibility of under- or localized corrosion by guaranteeing that the shielded structure is consistently protected. Furthermore, in comparison to conventional anodes, the environmental impact of conductive ceramics is minimal. These polymers are an environmentally friendly option providing a long-time corrosion protection since they do not degrade or release hazardous compounds into the environment [241]. In terms of economics, conductive ceramic anodes may initially cost more than conventional alternatives, but over time, their longevity and less maintenance needs might result in cheaper lifetime expenses. The goal of ongoing research is to better optimize the conductive ceramics' properties to increase their conductivity, lower their cost, and broaden their range of applications in CP systems [242].

Figure 5. Conducting Polymers and Ceramics in Corrosion Protection

5. Comprehensive Analysis of Anode Materials

This analysis compares the effectiveness, durability, and application of novel alloys and composite materials, coatings, surface modifications, and nanostructured materials in the context of anode performance.

Novel alloys, composite materials, coatings, and nanostructured materials are revolutionizing anode applications through enhanced performance and durability. Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) anodes, made from a titanium substrate coated with metal oxides like , , and , demonstrate improved electrochemical activity due to their porous structure, which increases surface area. However, while -based anodes are widely used, their dissolution in seawater remains a challenge. In contrast, - coatings offer better stability in marine environments, making them preferable for saltwater applications [243]-[245]. Aluminum-based alloys, such as  and , have shown excellent corrosion resistance and tunable potentials, with Al-Zn-In being particularly effective in marine settings due to its resistance to oxide layer formation [246].

Coatings like platinum and advanced ceramics also play a crucial role in anode longevity. Platinum-coated anodes, although expensive, provide high current density and long service life in harsh environments, while ceramic coatings such as  offer corrosion resistance in industries like aerospace and chemical processing [247]-[248]. Nanostructured materials, such as  nanotubes () and carbon-based substrates, are emerging as promising candidates for enhancing surface area and reaction rates in anode applications, although challenges like pore blockage during metal oxide deposition persist [249][250]. Conductive polymers, including polyaniline (PANI) and  (), offer corrosion protection in marine environments, though their performance heavily depends on molecular structure and environmental conditions [251][252]. Table 3 provides a comprehensive overview of the key characteristics of advanced anode materials, including novel alloys, surface coatings, nanostructured materials, conductive polymers, and ceramics. It highlights their specific advantages, challenges, and best-suited applications, offering a clear comparison of their performance in cathodic protection systems across various industries.

Table 3. Summary of Advanced Anode Materials Characteristics

5. APPLICATIONS AND CASE STUDIES OF ADVANCED ANODE MATERIALS IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES

1. Infrastructure

According to Zuo et al.  [253], as opposed to conventional carbon fibre cementitious anodes, carbon nanotube-carbon fibre/cement-based () hybrids significantly improve cathodic protection of reinforced concrete by lowering corrosion current and enhancing charge transfer resistance. Through the development of epoxy coatings using  nanocomposites, Mostafaei et al.  [254] considerably increased the corrosion resistance of carbon steel ST37 by improving barrier qualities and durability. To improve photo-generated cathodic protection for 304 stainless steels, Xu et al. [255] developed  () sensitized  nanotube arrays (). Performance is enhanced by appropriate PTh deposition, while excessive PTh may decrease efficacy. According to Li et al.  [256], adding up to 2 weight percent of carbon nanotubes () to carbon fiber/cement-based composites reduces resistivity; at 0.5 weight percent , resistivity is as low as 22.3 Ω·cm, greatly enhancing cathodic protection for reinforced concrete.

2. Marine

By strengthening conductive networks and optimizing corrosion product deposition, mesoporous  particles were found to significantly improve long-term barrier characteristics and initial cathodic protection in  () coatings [257]. For impressed current cathodic protection, Oloruntoba et al. [258] created aluminum-iron anodes with iron ore tailings. They demonstrated that an anode consisting of 85% aluminum and 15% ore tailings offered better corrosion resistance and a more positive corrosion potential than steel. [259] investigated the impact of Pseudomonas sp. on Zn sacrificial anodes for cathodic protection of X80 steel in tidal environments. They found that although the anodes achieved over 92% efficiency in abiotic conditions, Pseudomonas sp. reduced efficiency by encouraging corrosion and preventing the formation of calcareous deposits.

3. Oil and Gas

Abdel-Aziz et al.  [260] created dimensionally stable anodes () alongside MMO coatings, demonstrating that the electrochemical properties and barrier to corrosion of a quaternary composition of 60% , 20% , 15% , and 5%  have been substantially enhanced, making it ideal for industrial applications such as chloro-alkali electrolysis. In their study, Zavareh et al. [261] examined the rust protection of carbon steel pipes coated with Alumina-Titania ( via plasma thermal spraying and high-velocity oxygen fuel (). They discovered that plasma coating outperforms  in seawater because it is a denser and more chemically resistant coating. In their evaluation of the corrosion resistance of cast iron pipelines coated with  and Polyvinyl  nanocomposites, Ammar et al.  [262] found that  led to a 94% decrease in seawater corrosion rates, while  reduced corrosion by up to 86% in "produced water," highlighting the importance of coating porosity and capacitance in overall performance.

4. Other Industries

To create  composites, Wang et al.  [263] anodized  nanotubes and electrochemically deposited CdTe. They discovered that, in comparison to pure , appropriate electrolyte acidity greatly enhanced the photogenerated cathodic protection of 304 stainless steels under visible light. A nanocomposite of   nanotube () containing a coaxial p-n heterojunction was created by Cui et al. [264]. This nanocomposite showed enhanced photocurrent density and excellent visible light responsiveness, which improved corrosion resistance for  substrates and 304 stainless steels. According to Hayatdavoudi et al. (2017) [265], adding 0.4 weight percent graphene nanosheets to zinc-rich epoxy () coatings significantly increases corrosion resistance. Smaller concentrations, however, lessen effectiveness, highlighting the significance of the ideal graphene content. The study conducted by Cubides et al. [266] investigated the effects of carbon nanotubes with zinc-rich epoxy primers () on carbon steel. The findings indicated that a lower zinc level offered barrier protection, while a higher zinc content increased cathodic protection due to better transmission of electrons by .

6. CONCLUSION

Improved cathodic protection systems with cutting-edge anode materials have demonstrated notable gains in resilience, sustainability, and general efficacy—particularly in harsh settings such as marine and saltwater applications. New materials that offer better corrosion resistance, like Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) anodes and sophisticated aluminum-based alloys, have quantitatively shown to have a 30% longer service life than conventional anodes. Furthermore, by lowering hazardous waste and their lifetime environmental impact, ceramics and platinized coatings provide exceptional environmental benefits.

Nanotechnology has been extremely helpful in offshore oil and gas applications, as evidenced by the up to 25% improvement in corrosion resistance achieved by integrating SiO2 and  nanoparticles into anode materials. In a similar vein, polymer nanocomposites and nanostructured materials have improved these systems' performance even further, offering over 15% increases in corrosion resistance for the industrial and aerospace sectors.

But there are still problems, especially with conductive polymers and ceramics, which have problems with expensive production prices, difficult manufacturing processes, and long-term stability. Subsequent investigations ought to concentrate on refining these materials to surmount these obstacles, concurrently increasing manufacturing procedures to render them more economically feasible.

Advanced anode materials have a positive environmental impact, especially when it comes to using conductive polymers and environmentally friendly ceramics to make less hazardous waste. Because of their longer service life and less maintenance requirements, these materials have the potential to have a 20% lower environmental effect than typical anode systems, according to a lifecycle study.

These developments could find usage outside of the maritime sector in sectors including energy, transportation, and civil infrastructure, where improved cathodic protection is essential. These advancements, for example, greatly benefit offshore buildings, storage tanks, and pipelines. Additional advantages may become available with more investigation into cutting-edge uses in sustainable infrastructure projects and renewable energy systems.

Future studies should concentrate on addressing the economic viability of these materials even as technological advancements continue to advance the sector. The longer service life and less maintenance needed, despite greater initial material costs, can result in long-term savings of up to 40%, according to a thorough cost analysis. The need for further industry cooperation and regulatory support is highlighted by the fact that real-world adoption is still constrained by implementation and cost issues.

With ongoing advancements in material performance, environmental sustainability, and financial feasibility, cathodic protection systems appear to have a bright future. Improvements in processing technology along with greater research into new alloys, composites, and nanostructured materials will probably make it possible for anode materials that are more effective, long-lasting, and environmentally friendly to be widely used. The success of these technologies across a range of industries will depend on ongoing studies into the cost-performance relationship and industry-wide acceptance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank the management of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mewar University, Chittorgarh for providing us with the necessary facilities and supervision throughout this work.

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